Presidential Elections Vs. The Olympic Games Essay

Neurky Espinal Rodriguez FINAL ASSIGNMENT Presidential elections are very similar to the Olympic Games. They occur every four years, receive all interest for a short period of time, and then once they have passed we forget about them. Over time, electoral campaigns were changing their form. If the propaganda before was pamphlets and public events, radio added rules to the game by allowing mass speeches. And the transformation was greater with the advent of television broadcasts, focused on the image of a candidate who no longer needed his political party to get closer to the electorate across the country. In the internet age, electoral campaigns found a new way: social medias. Social media is having a much greater impact on these electoral campaigns than we even realize. The Obama campaign of 2008 is considered one of the greatest achievements of social media. Sophisticated at the time, it mobilized supporters to make small donations and organized a massive voter turnout in key cities and states. Now, in 2016, everyone already knows how to do it. But what is really interesting is how social media are replacing the conventional political tactics and propaganda that have existed since television played an important role for the first time in 1960. I think that social medias are changing the way of making the political campaign today, because social medias have an essential power among voters. The trick is always the same: to get the message between the sender andShow MoreRelated Women in the Middle East and Greece Essay3931 Words   |  16 Pagesprofessions like judges, doctors, lawyers, professors, etc. I found that this new civil code mainly affected the middle to upper class women of Turkey and continues to do so today. There is a definite difference between a womans life in the city vs. a life in the countryside. 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Cannabis Keeps the Mind Balanced - 681 Words

Drugs in America Cannabis- Keeps the Mind Balanced Marijuana also known Cannabis is the most common recreational drug of choice in modern day society. Although marijuana is currently one of the most controversial drugs, it is statistically the safest of any drug in the United States and around the world yet it is still illegal. Aside the recreational use of marijuana; it can be used as a pain reliever and a relaxant. Marijuana is extremely beneficial to cancer, AIDS, glaucoma, and multi sclerosis patients in which it offers a strong sense of relief. I believe that marijuana is therapeutic drug that can be used recreational and medicinal. Although marijuana offers many benefits, there are still many issues that surround the use of the drug. The constant battle over legalizing marijuana stems from its classification as a Schedule I drug. Schedule I drugs are extremely high risk for latent substance abuse. I have various standpoints on the recreational use of marijuana in which if it’s used to relief individuals stress level then why oppose the use. I am firm believer marijuana smokers use the drug to block out traumatizing past experiences. Anything that can help comfort a mother suffering from glaucoma should unquestionably be supported. Marijuana can be used for spiritual purposes in which it can help one meditate at ease. It creates a calm and relaxing atmosphere to think freely which puts the mind at ease. The medicinal use of marijuana is a prime example on whyShow MoreRelatedShould We Legalize Marijuana? Essay1604 Words   |  7 Pagesthere are those consumers that abuse the use of these drugs. That brings into question if the legalization of certain drugs should be considered or if it is best to keep them illegal. One of the main drugs in debate now and the topic I conducted my research on is Marijuana. 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Balance in the Administration of Justice Security Free Essays

string(83) " use of a wire tap, and that the chances of its success should be reasonably high\." Recent American polls have suggested that Americans, in a bid to reducing terrorism threats, do not mind sacrificing some of their freedom. The choices faced are usually two; a free country which is prone to terrorist attacks, and a restricted country that is free from terrorism. These are hard choices to make, especially with the view that no restrictions can guarantee absence of a terrorist attack, they merely reduce the chances of occurrence. We will write a custom essay sample on Balance in the Administration of Justice Security or any similar topic only for you Order Now Some people see no conflict between security and liberty, and instead view security as a means to liberty. Proper governments use police powers, both military and domestic, to safeguard the liberty of its citizens. According to Coutu (2006), abrogation, cannot however be used to safeguard individual freedom. Governments that use police powers arbitrarily, destroy the values that they are supposed to secure. Before these governments use police powers to place people under surveillance, question them, arrest them, prosecute them, and in international threats, attack enemy countries, they should have comprehensive evidence of threat to the citizens of its country. This principle is used even in times of war, although procedures and standards, of prosecution and evidence may change. For example, if a certain country supports terrorists, the government has the right to screen or ban citizens arriving from that country. During war, the government has also the right to imprison or execute enemy combatants, without public trials. The major bone of contention when balancing the needs of the justice system and the individual rights of the people, is the perception that individual rights have been trampled on, when enforcing security regulations. Such rights as freedom of movement, freedom of expression, and rights of privacy are seen to be curtailed, when enforcing security regulations, such as using torture to obtain information, monitoring phone calls to obtain information, and checking IDs when screening people. These three issues are analyzed below, including my suggestions, as a justice administrator, on how to deal with them, so as to balance needs of the justice system and the individual rights of the people. Issues involved in regulation of security. Use of torture to obtain information According to Coutu and Simon (2007), torture has long been used as a means of extracting information from suspects or prisoners. In the United States, the US army and the Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) are the most notorious government agents that have been reported to use torture in extracting information. In fact, both of them have courses on torture, in their training manuals. Torture is normally conducted in dark rooms, which have no toilets and windows, and its aim is to threaten the suspect into giving information, due to belief that lack of cooperation will lead to physical and emotional trauma. There have been many instances where the US army has been caught torturing prisoners, the most notable in the Iraqi prisons, and Guantanamo bay, Cuba. The exposure by the media has however led to decrease in such human rights violations. In instances of war, it is difficult for soldiers to balance between the freedom of a person and security obligations. This is because a war is a life and death situation, and does not allow the leisure of thinking rationally before acting, especially when in a battle scene. However, in case prisoners are captured, in my opinion as a justice administrator, the security obligations should only outweigh individual rights, and allow reasonable level of torture, if either of three conditions are met. The prisoner should have information that is; crucial to saving lives of other people, will help in achievement of the war mission, or will help prevent further destruction of property. As stated above, reasonable level of torture should be used in these circumstances, and it must be carried out in the presence of a qualified physician. In case it is not during a war situation, my opinion is a fourth condition is introduced; that a court of law should be convinced that there is evidence that suggests, that torture is the only means that can be used to extract that information. Monitoring phone calls to obtain security threats. According to Stephens and Glenn (2006), telephone and wire taps have been used to obtain information, by third parties, for a relatively long time. Its history can be traced to as early as 1890s and has been carried out in the US, under several presidents. Wire tapping has for many years been used to catch spies, or to spy against foreign countries with a view of obtaining strategic information. However, it has taken a different dimension recently, and is largely used to either catch criminals in the act, or to prevent crimes from happening. This involves tapping the telephones that are used or placing bugging devices close to suspects, so that they might capture their conversation. There have been calls for restriction of wire taps, since it is seen as violation of the right of privacy. This is especially true because of the tendency of government agents to abuse such powers, and tap phones, even where there is no accompanying evidence to suggest a crime. When deciding on the use of wire taps, it is important to weigh the security of the wider public, against the rights of the individual. In case the security threat outweighs the rights of the individual, wire taps may be used. However, before wire taps are used, in my opinion as a justice administrator, a court of law has to authorize it, and three conditions must be satisfied. The first is that, it should be proved that there is evidence against a suspect that links him or her to committing, or trying to commit a crime. The second is the alleged crime has to be material enough to warrant a wire tap. The third is that there should be no other possible way to link the suspect to the crime, other than use of a wire tap, and that the chances of its success should be reasonably high. You read "Balance in the Administration of Justice Security" in category "Papers" In this case, the security of the wider public will have out weighed the individual freedom, and use of phone taps will be reasonable. ID checks in screening people Since the September 11, 2001 attacks, there has been increase in checking of IDs, as a preventive measure against criminal activity. IDs are checked when using airlines, checking into hotels, entering a government building and sometimes even entering a hospital. These checks are all aimed at ensuring security prevails, but some people see it as invasion of privacy, and restricting freedom of movement. When trying to balance liberty and security, it is imperative that a cost benefit analysis is done, and benefits of such measures weighed against costs. In this case, checking IDs should have more benefits against costs, but that is not the case. In fact, according to Toner (2002), all the September 11 terrorist attacks were carried out by people with IDs; some were fake, others were genuine. They carried them since they expected to be asked for them. IDs are very easily forged, and are readily available; teenagers use them often to enter clubs when they are under-aged. IDs are also useless to check, if there is no accompanying profile; this means merely having an ID of a criminal without knowledge that he or she is one, does not have any benefit. Presence of profiles divides people into two classes; those that fit the profile and are thus screened cautiously, and those who do not fit the profile and are thus not screened very cautiously. This exposes a very dangerous third category of those who are criminals but do not fit the profile. Examples are Timothy McVeigh, the Oklahoma bomber, and John Allen, the Washington sniper. In such circumstances, it is clear that benefits of ID checks are lower than their costs, the cost being intrusion of privacy and freedom of movement. In my opinion as a justice administrator, it is important to cease such checks, since they limit freedom and liberty, without reasonable benefits on security of the wider public. The police should use other approaches such as random checks, which are less predictable than regular checks. Changes in technology and mass communication and effects on justice and security areas. The advent of globalization has turned the world into a global village. According to Waldron (2003), it is possible to carry out business activities, communicate, learn, share ideas, and so much more, with anyone in any part of the world, through the Internet. Mobile phone technology has also made it possible for people in all corners of the world to communicate and interact with one another. This is the reason that e-mails and mobile phones have played an important role in many people’s lives. However, criminals have also had access to these forms of communication and interaction, which has presented a danger to the society. Technology has enabled criminals to carry out their activities faster, and with higher precision. Technology has enabled them to communicate faster amongst themselves, and obtain information about their targets. Changes in technology have also been the downfall of criminals. Through use of mobile phones and emails, criminals have left traces of their criminal activities and identities. This is because communication between themselves can be recorded, fingerprints and DNA can be ‘lifted’ from crime scenes, and data can be recovered from computers and phones that they use. This has been the key to solving many crimes, since it places the suspects at the crime scene, and may unearth crucial evidence to use in prosecution. This is what investigators have relied on, over the years. New technology has enabled investigators to be able to monitor suspects’ movements and communication through ‘bugs’ placed on phones that record conversations and cameras that monitor movements of suspects. However, there has been cases where investigators have abused their powers, by illegally listening to conversations of people, without evidence that they are potential suspects. This is what has been regarded by people as restricting the freedom of privacy. Mass media has played a very important role in highlighting issues regarding to liberty and security of citizens. The media has played a very important role, especially with regards to exposing human rights abuses by US soldiers, both in Iraqi prisons and Guantanamo bay, in Cuba. In both instances, the media exposed torture on unarmed prisoners, and in other cases, on non-combatants. This was previously restricted to the closed walls of prison, but once it was exposed, the abuses had to cease, due to the spotlight on the soldiers. The mass media can thus be said to have played a crucial role in restoring justice, in that respect. Conclusion It is evident that the balance between individual rights and the administration of security is difficult. This is because some people complain, when administration of security is done, under the guise of violation of their rights. On the other hand, when crimes are committed, they are the first ones to blame the security agencies. This makes it a very delicate affair and the administrators of justice should ensure that a balance between the two is maintained. This can be done by weighing the benefits of the administration of security to the wider public, against the rights of the individual. If the benefits to the wider public outweigh those of the individual, then the security measures should be performed. Another way of ensuring the balance of security and individual rights, especially during a war situation, is to make sure that the decision to torture someone should be guided by saving of lives, accomplishing of war objectives, or saving of property. However, it should be noted that during war, torture should be done to reasonable levels, and that a qualified physician should be present. In absence of war, torture should be approved by a court of law, after examining evidence presented, and ruling that torture is inevitable. In the case of phone taps, this should only be allowed after a court of law weighs evidence produced, and concludes that phone taps are the best way of obtaining evidence against the suspect, under such circumstances. ID checks should only be allowed if done at random, since the criminals do not anticipate them. References. Coutu, M. (2006). The Aftermath of 11 September 2001: Liberty Vs. Security. Washington: OUP. Coutu, N. E. , Simon, R. L. (2007), The Individual and the Political Order: An Introduction to Social and Political Philosophy. New York: Rowman Littlefield Stephens, O. H. , Glenn, R. A. (2006), Unreasonable Searches and Seizures: Rights and Liberties Under the Law. Chicago: ABC-CLIO. Toner, R. (2002). A nation challenged: The terrorism fight; civil liberty vs security. New York Times. Retrieved on October 23, 2008 from facultystaff. vwc. edu. Waldron, J. (2003). Security and liberty: The image of balance. The Journal of Political Philosophy. Boston: Blackwell Synergy. How to cite Balance in the Administration of Justice Security, Papers

Separate Peace Responsibility Essay Example For Students

Separate Peace: Responsibility Essay A Separate Peace: ResponsibilityA responsibility is something for which one is held accountable. Often people say that one is responsible for one’s own words and actions; if something happens as a result of something one does one is responsible for it. But is it possible that something could be the result of various actions from different people who are therefore equally responsible, or is there always one person who is most responsible for the incident at hand? Such a situation where this question is relevant is present in the novel A Separate Peace by John Knowles. In the novel, the main character, Gene, ponders his responsibility for the death of his best friend, Phineas or Finny. After reading Gene’s account of the events that led to Finny’s death the reader may observe that there are three people who are all partially at fault for Finny’s death. Gene, a classmate named Brinker, and Phineas all had something to do with the incident, but who was most re sponsible for it?Gene is probably the most obvious to blame for part of Phineas’ death. Gene clearly feels guilty, that is why he returns to the tree fifteen years after the fact, for some sort of closure. As Gene and Finny were about to jump from a tree branch into the river together, Gene shook the branch causing Phineas to fall into the river unexpectedly and hurt his leg. Later on, when Phineas re-injured his leg and was having it set in a routine operation, he passed away. The doctor said that it was probably because some marrow entered his blood stream and caused his heart to stop. But if Finny had never fallen in the first place he would have not been on that operating table. Therefore, indirectly an action of Genes eventually resulted in Finny’s death. But was this action done consciously? The author does not specify. â€Å"My knees were bent and I jounced the limb†(Knowles p.52) says Gene in his account of the incident. â€Å"I jounced† is an act ive verb but â€Å"were bent† is passive meaning that some unknown force bent Gene’s knees and as a result of that he jounced the limb. Since this action was not totally Gene’s he is not thus totally responsible for the fall or the events that occurred as a result of it. Brinker, Gene and Finny’s classmate was responsible for the circumstances that lead to Phineas’ second fall. Brinker suspected that Gene was responsible for Finny’s first fall and begrudged him somewhat for not enlisting in the army with him when he had wanted to. It was Brinker who called together the trial in which Gene was prosecuted for purposely causing Finny to fall off the tree. But even if Gene was to blame for Finny’s first fall, it was not necessary to drag Finny out of bed in the middle of the night and put him through such emotional turmoil when he was still physically vulnerable from the accident. If Brinker had not organized the trial Finny would have never rushed out in such an upset manner causing him to fall and hurt himself again. The doctor was not sure why Phineas died. â€Å"In the middle of it his heart just stopped. I can’t explain it.†(Knowles p.185) He said. Later on the doctor conjectured that Phineas probably died when marrow entered his blood circulation and clogged his heart but Gene meant the world to Finny. The idea Brinker introduced to Phineas that his best friend would betray him hurt Phineas severely and maybe even caused him to loose the will to live. Brinker’s actions were crucial to Finny’s death and since they were done with cruel intentions Brinker is largely responsible for the death of his classmate. .u88f7c20373ddcb908a39012c186a8b8d , .u88f7c20373ddcb908a39012c186a8b8d .postImageUrl , .u88f7c20373ddcb908a39012c186a8b8d .centered-text-area { min-height: 80px; position: relative; } .u88f7c20373ddcb908a39012c186a8b8d , .u88f7c20373ddcb908a39012c186a8b8d:hover , .u88f7c20373ddcb908a39012c186a8b8d:visited , .u88f7c20373ddcb908a39012c186a8b8d:active { border:0!important; } .u88f7c20373ddcb908a39012c186a8b8d .clearfix:after { content: ""; display: table; clear: both; } .u88f7c20373ddcb908a39012c186a8b8d { display: block; transition: background-color 250ms; webkit-transition: background-color 250ms; width: 100%; opacity: 1; transition: opacity 250ms; webkit-transition: opacity 250ms; background-color: #95A5A6; } .u88f7c20373ddcb908a39012c186a8b8d:active , .u88f7c20373ddcb908a39012c186a8b8d:hover { opacity: 1; transition: opacity 250ms; webkit-transition: opacity 250ms; background-color: #2C3E50; } .u88f7c20373ddcb908a39012c186a8b8d .centered-text-area { width: 100%; position: relative ; } .u88f7c20373ddcb908a39012c186a8b8d .ctaText { border-bottom: 0 solid #fff; color: #2980B9; font-size: 16px; font-weight: bold; margin: 0; padding: 0; text-decoration: underline; } .u88f7c20373ddcb908a39012c186a8b8d .postTitle { color: #FFFFFF; font-size: 16px; font-weight: 600; margin: 0; padding: 0; width: 100%; } .u88f7c20373ddcb908a39012c186a8b8d .ctaButton { background-color: #7F8C8D!important; color: #2980B9; border: none; border-radius: 3px; box-shadow: none; font-size: 14px; font-weight: bold; line-height: 26px; moz-border-radius: 3px; text-align: center; text-decoration: none; text-shadow: none; width: 80px; min-height: 80px; background: url(https://artscolumbia.org/wp-content/plugins/intelly-related-posts/assets/images/simple-arrow.png)no-repeat; position: absolute; right: 0; top: 0; } .u88f7c20373ddcb908a39012c186a8b8d:hover .ctaButton { background-color: #34495E!important; } .u88f7c20373ddcb908a39012c186a8b8d .centered-text { display: table; height: 80px; padding-left : 18px; top: 0; } .u88f7c20373ddcb908a39012c186a8b8d .u88f7c20373ddcb908a39012c186a8b8d-content { display: table-cell; margin: 0; padding: 0; padding-right: 108px; position: relative; vertical-align: middle; width: 100%; } .u88f7c20373ddcb908a39012c186a8b8d:after { content: ""; display: block; clear: both; } READ: Dinquent EssaySurprisingly enough Finny is partly responsible for his own death. He knew that jumping off the tree into the river was dangerous hence the name of the club â€Å"Super Suicide Society of the Summer Session†(Knowles p.24) whose membership requirement was one jump from the tree. Also, if not for Finny Gene wouldn’t even have come to the meeting the night of the accident, Gene wanted to stay in the dorm and study but Finny used reverse psychology in order to convince him to come. Lastly, it was also Finny’s idea that they jump together rather then alone, risking the possibility that the movement of one could cause the other to loose his bal ance. If not for any of these incidents Finny would never have fallen to begin with, Gene’s trial would never have taken place, and he would not have found himself on that operating table. This makes Finny largely responsible for his first fall and partly responsible for his death. In conclusion although none of them were conscious that their actions would eventually lead to Finny’s death, Gene, Brinker, and Finny were all partly responsible for it. The one most to blame however was Finny himself, starting a club in which jumping off the tree into the river was a membership requirement was the first in the series of events that eventually lead to his death. If Finny had not done this none of the incidents which Gene and Brinker were at fault for would have ever had reason to take place. Consequently, the person most to blame for the death of Phineas was Phineas himself. As the song goes: â€Å"It is of no surprise to me, I am my own worst enemy.†(Lit Place in the Sun)Book Reports

The extent to which the principles of Scientific management are still relevant to modern organizations Essay Example

The extent to which the principles of Scientific management are still relevant to modern organizations Paper At the beginning of the Second World War, Taylorism disappeared and was replaced with another form of work organization: Fordism. Fordism appeared when Ford started producing Model T cars but by basing his production upon Taylorist lines. Scientific management was still used; there was an explicit distinction between management and workforce, each employee had a specific task to do and their task was timed. Fordism seems more closely attached to the production system of modern organizations than Taylorism does, since it includes Taylors ideas but by also introducing new ones, and this is why this essay will be centred on the link between Fordism and todays production system: Toyotism. At the end of the 1980s, Fordism, which had been at the base of economic growth in the country for thirty years, fades away. Changes in demand, rise in the workers strikes the organizations must react and readapt themselves, also in order to face the rise in foreign competition. The Japanese model of organization used since the end of the Second World War, Toyotism, was then adapted in Europe and the USA during the 1980s. But what can we say about this post-fordism twenty years later? The worker, who now sees his work as more interesting, where he has more responsibility and importance, is he now liberated from his constraints? Havent things changed, especially in the tertiary, which had been kept out of scientific management for so many years? And finally, wouldnt it be more specific to talk about neo-fordism rather than Toyotism? We will write a custom essay sample on The extent to which the principles of Scientific management are still relevant to modern organizations specifically for you for only $16.38 $13.9/page Order now We will write a custom essay sample on The extent to which the principles of Scientific management are still relevant to modern organizations specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer We will write a custom essay sample on The extent to which the principles of Scientific management are still relevant to modern organizations specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer We shall see that scientific management is still relevant to modern organizations in a first part, and then shall see that this isnt completely true anymore. In modern organizations, hierarchy is still present. It will probably always be like this, somebody needs to be in charge or else there would be too many conflicts. Hierarchy is one of the three most important points of scientific management, along with the specialisation of the workers task and the timing of this task so as to impose a cadence. What Taylor wanted to show was that the old way of organizing work in the 19th century was too slow, there were too many gaps in the production process and that this led to a very low productivity. Taylor wanted a separation of planning from execution, and this is still the way that it works in the time of Toyotism. Every organization has a manager who will plan the work, see the objectives of the product or service, and then leave it to the workers to fulfil the concept. Nowadays, the hierarchy doesnt only stand out through the fact that there is a manager and that there are workers, but also with sub-divisions. In organizations we now find a managing director general, a manager, a sub-manager, foremen and so on. These all have different tasks, from planning to execution, so this shows that Taylors idea is still used nowadays. Leadership is therefore still present nowadays but it seems to be going through some changes. Alvin Gouldner, in Studies in Leadership, said that traditional authority does not command the respect and ready obedience that it once did. To achieve this obedience it seems like leadership is the step to take. Fred Fielder made a theory on how to be a successful leader. He based it on three interrelated factors: leader-member relationships, task structure and power of the position. The higher these three factors are the better leader you are (Horn: The development of modern management). It seems as if they are taking Taylors idea about hierarchy and developing it. Taylor had realised that to improve the productivity of an organization he had to time the tasks and make sure that they were done in the fastest time possible. This way every worker would produce more of a product per day and the profitability of the organization would also increase. This led to difficulties in the workers lives; they would feel stress and this wouldnt be good for them neither mentally nor physically. This was one of the reasons for the Fordism crisis in the 1980s, the workers contestations led to strikes and managers saw that it was time to change the production system. What the workers were timed by during Fordism was the work chain, parts and pieces would pass on a rolling carpet in front of them and they would have to assemble them so as to be passed on to the next worker. Today the work chain still exists for it has proven to work well although the workers dont benefit from it. In the fordist system organizations didnt wait for the demand for them to produce, because they knew that the demand existed. Organizations produced in vast quantities and stocked the products before they were sold. They therefore needed stocking space, people to look after them, and all of these made supplementary production costs. Nowadays, organizations wait for the demand before they produce. It is for this reason that, for example, if we are buying a car we have to wait a while before we actually receive it. There are no stocks, no papers, and these organizations also want there to be no delays. There is also a research of quality, and all of these factors impose a rhythm on the workers that they must respect, so it comes back to the same timed conditions that there were in Fordism and Taylorism. In both the taylorist and the fordist systems, the worker wasnt qualified, he had one task to do and was taught how to perform this task. This also led to conflicts; the worker felt that he was dispossessed of his knowledge and skills so with the new production system the workers became qualified. They learnt about different working posts, they could move around so as to feel more responsible. But through mechanization and the upgrading of computer systems the worker once again feels dispossessed of his knowledge and skills. Machines start replacing men, all that the worker has to do is to program the machine and it will do the rest. The workers feel that it isnt even worth having the qualifications anymore since they can be trained within a few hours. It isnt only industrial workers that feel this way, but it is also starting to affect the workers in the tertiary sector. In 1974, Harry Braverman wrote a book entitled Monopoly Capital: The Degradation of Work in the Twentieth Century, which later became known as the Braverman thesis. This is now referred to as the McDonaldization thesis, showing the deskilling of work in fast-foods (Huczynski and Buchanan: Organizational Behaviour: An Introductory Text). The work in fast-foods is standardised, they produce the same hamburgers over and over again, so the work is also very repetitive. The employees are trained within a few hours, and the start at their work post. This reminds us a lot about Taylorism and Fordism; you have one work post and you stay at it. Either you fry the meat, warm the bread or serve the customers. There are other examples in the tertiary, such as the new information technology in banks, which simplifies the work of the workers. In the end they just have to write down some numbers in their computer and it will give them their answer. Cadences also exist in other areas of the tertiary, for example room cleaners in hotels who only have a certain amount of time per room. In Taylorism the motivation used for the workers was a system of economic rewards. These rewards were attributed to a worker when they saw that he was working hard, for example by beating the cadences imposed on him. Today salaries are a lot more individualised, but systems of economic rewards still exist. They are called raises, and they are achieved the same way that they were almost a century ago. It here seems as if we can rather talk about neo-fordism rather than Toyotism or Japanization, but there are other aspects that show that nowadays we use a completely different production system. Under other aspects, we can see that Toyotism is a new production system and that there are differences between it and both Fordism and scientific management. These differences are mainly to do with the workers tasks which expand, the new bottom-up style of working and the new remuneration system. Oliver Sheldon said that there may be a science of costing, of planning, of manufacturing, of dispatching, but there can be no science of cooperation (H. Pollard: Development in management thought), or in other words that in order to make things run smoother on the workers side there were changes to be made. He said this in the 1920s and it wasnt until sixty years later that these changes were made. These changes included task rotation, where the worker would occupy several different posts in order to break the monotony of his work, to make him feel more responsible and to allow him to get a more complete vision of the production process. So as to help the workers cope with their new work tasks the organizations set up education and training for them which once again also allows the workers to feel more important (Noon and Blyton in Organizational Behaviour: An Introductory Text). The work expands to more interesting aspects such as the upgrading of the machinery and the control of the quality. During Taylorism and Fordism the organization was what was called top-down, the orders came from the manager and the worker would have to do with it without having his say. Today this has changed, it is now considered as a bottom-up way of organizing the production. This means that the worker can give his ideas, and he is encouraged to do this through the installation of teams that work together. They have an objective to fulfil but they organise their own work. There is less hierarchical control and the group is responsible for its production. Quality circles are also put into place where groups of volunteers discuss problems and suggestions or solutions. Individual or collective rewards are given out if a suggestion is applied with success. The nature of the organization changed with post-fordism. There were changes in demand, the people now are after different products rather than standardised ones, with a research of quality, and organizations also must look out for foreign competition. During the time of Fordism, the companies tried to compete with each other through the price of their products; nowadays the price isnt the only competition between them, there is also the aspect of quality which is now very important. During Fordism, as soon as there was a fluctuation in the salaries it was generalised, there would be a collective rise in wages. With the passage into post-fordism, the salaries became much more individualised with the return of rewards as in Taylorism, but now not only for good work but also for good suggestions. Toyotism is seen as a new form of work organization, but in relation to Fordism, Taylorism and scientific management, some things havent changed, and this is not always for the best. We can say that post-fordism is fordism which has been humanised in social relations, it allows the worker to participate in the improvement of the production through the quality circles, and gives him more liberty in his work. On the other hand, hierarchy is still present, the working conditions are still poor in some cases, some workers still have very repetitive work and all of this leads to stress and to poorly physical conditions. Toyotism can therefore be described as a sort of neo-fordism as opposed to post-fordism since some of the aspects remain present.

Examples of Business Plans Components

Examples of Business Plans Components When it comes to starting your own company (or managing someone elses), every business needs to develop and write a good business plan they can follow to achieve the companys goals, which can then be used to pitch to investors or seek out commercial loans. Put simply, a business plan is an outline of goals and the steps needed to achieve them, and while not all businesses require a formal business plan, composing a business plan, in general, is an essential step to starting your own business as it lays out what you plan to do to get your business off the ground. All business plans- even informal outlines- require several key components including an executive summary (including objectives and keys to success), a company summary (including ownership and history), a products and services section, a market analysis section, and a strategy and implementation section. Why Business Plans Are Important Taking a look at a  sample business plan, its easy to see how these documents can get quite lengthy, but not all business plans need to be as detailed as this- especially if youre not looking for investors or loans. A business plan is simply a way for your business to evaluate whether or not actions would benefit a companys ability to achieve its goals, so theres no need to write extra details if theyre not needed to organize your business. Still, you should be as detailed as necessary when composing your business plan as each element can greatly benefit future decisions by outlining clear guidelines for what the company plans to achieve and how it plans to achieve it. The length and content of these plans, then, comes from the type of business youre creating a plan for. Small businesses just looking to stay organized benefit from the objective-strategy structure of the standard business plan while bigger businesses or those hoping to expand can fully summarize every element of their businesses so investors and loan agents get a better understanding of the mission of that business- and whether or not they want to invest. Introduction to Business Plan Whether youre writing a  web design business plan  or a  tutoring business plan, there are several key components that must be included in the introduction to the document in order for the plan to be considered viable, including a summary of the business and its goals and the key components that indicate success. Every business plan, big or small, should start out with an executive summary that details what the company hopes to accomplish, how it hopes to accomplish it, and why this business is the right one for the job. Essentially, the executive summary is an overview of what will be included in the rest of the document and should inspire investors, loan officers, or potential business partners and clients to want to be a part of the plan. The objectives, mission statement, and keys to success are also principal components of this first section as they will outline achievable, concrete goals that the company plans to achieve through its business model. Whether youre stating well increase sales by more than $10 million by the third year or saying well improve inventory turnover to six turns next year, these goals and missions should be quantifiable and attainable. The Company Summary Section After fleshing out the objectives of your business plan, its time to describe the company itself, starting with a company summary that highlights major accomplishments as well as problem areas that need to be solved. This section also includes a summary of the ownership of the company, which should include any investors or stakeholders as well as owners and people who play a part in management decisions. You will also want to give a full company history, which includes the inherent barrier to your goals thus far as well as a review of prior years sales and expenses performances. Youll also want to list any outstanding debts and current assets alongside any trends noted in your particular industry that affect your financial and sales goals. Finally, you should include the companys locations and facilities, which detail the office or workspace being used for the business, what property assets the business has, and which departments are currently part of the company as they relate to achieving the companys goals. The Products and Services Section Every successful business must have a plan to make money through the products or services that business provides; so naturally, a good business plan must include a section about the core revenue model of the company. This section should start with a clear introductory overview to what the company offers consumers as well as the voice and style in which the company wishes to present itself to those customers- for example, a software company might say we dont just sell good accounting software, we change the way you balance your checkbook. The products and services section also details competitive comparisons- how this company measures up to others that offer the same good or service- as well as technology research, sourcing for materials, and future products and services the company plans to offer to help drive competition and sales. The Market Analysis Section In order to properly project what goods and services a company might want to offer in the future, a comprehensive market analysis section should also be included in your business plan. This section details exactly how well the current market in your companys business field is doing, including major and minor concerns that could affect your ability to achieve your sales and income goals. The section starts with an overview of the market your company targets (demographics) as well as industry analysis of what types of businesses typically exist within that marketplace and known participants who are your main source of competition within that industry. You should also include distribution, competition, and buying patterns alongside the companys main competitors and an overview of statistical figures from an in-depth market analysis. This way, investors, partners, or loan officers can see that you understand what stands between you and your companys goals: competition and the market itself. The Strategy and Implementation Section Finally, every good business plan needs to include a section detailing  the companys marketing, pricing, promotions, and sales strategies- as well as how the company plans to implement them and what sales forecasts have been discovered as a result of these plans. The introduction to this section should contain a high-level view of the strategy and their implementation including bulleted or numbered lists of objectives and the viable steps that can be taken in order to achieve them.  Calling out objectives like emphasize service and support or focus on target markets and describing how the company will go about doing this shows investors and business partners that you understand the market and what needs to be done to take your company to the next level. Once youve outlined each element of your companys strategy, youll then want to end the business plan with sales forecasts, which detail your expectations after implementing each element of the business plan itself. Essentially, this final section tells investors exactly what will be accomplished by carrying out this business plan into the future- or at least give them an idea that youve thought about what could happen if you implemented the plan.

The Mortality Rates of Advance Mechanical Ventilator Modes vs Research Proposal

The Mortality Rates of Advance Mechanical Ventilator Modes vs Intravenous (IV) medications in the Adult ICU Setting - Research Proposal Example Mechanical ventilation is a common application in the intensive care unit but their usage is not entirely safe. Fernandez, Miguelena, Mulett, Godoy and Martinon-Tore contends that such applications require high degree of care and this further means that associated risk can occur without cases of practitioner’s negligence (2013). New mechanical ventilators continue to emerge but the risk has persisted. Adaptive support ventilation is one of the latest models but despite its advantages such as reduced ventilation period and less human management, it has diversified disadvantages such as lack of direct programming options, inadequate experience, and limited availability. Consequently, application is limited and even when it is available; it has significant risks that can contribute to mortality rate among patients in the ICU (Fernandez et al., 2013). In addition to direct risks of ventilator application, a patient may not be tolerant to its usage and this may hinder its efficienc y. Consequently, usage may not imply benefits to patients who may succumb to breathing difficulties. Associated complications of ventilator applications such as pressure on a patient’s respiratory system, irritation, and air leaks among other complications may, if not detected and corrected in time, be significant to the patient’s condition and lead to death (Grossbach, Chlan and Tracy, 2011). Fan, Villar and Slutsky’s review of acute respiratory distress syndrome that ventilators induce confirms significance of associated risks with mechanical ventilator modes into high mortality rate despite continued usage of the technology in intensive care units (2013). Like mechanical ventilator modes, intravenous medications have associated risks. In a study to investigate risk of intravenous medication on blood stream infections, the researchers identified significant risk levels but noted that application of

Executive summary of the Ethical Tabao company Essay

Executive summary of the Ethical Tabao company - Essay Example However, Taobao urges the public to behave responsibly to maximize the wealth of the shareholders. Taobao plans to raise its guarantee and technical charge with an objective of majoring in the B2C model to improve its quality and counterfeit control. The planned raise in fees would decrease the number of sellers operating on Taobao and consequently improve the company’s regulation. The small and medium entrepreneurs launched protests at the Taobao headquarters are opposing the planned policy since it forces them to pay same operation costs as the big sellers. Although the policy might be beneficial to the company, the protests have largely dented the image of Taobao. The small and medium entrepreneurs will face difficulties in continuing with the business and possibly fallout. The decrease in small and medium entrepreneurs would promote improvements in product quality and guarantee customer satisfaction in comfort and reliability. However, this adjustment might decrease customer satisfaction on price and product categories. Because of the mixed interests, the government has come up with regulations governing the online shopping agencies like Taobao. There are self-regulations by a business that allow companies to adopt policies befitting their competitive advantage. In relation to these regulations, the sellers should obey Taobao regulations. Additionally, there exist consumers’ regulations that protect consumers in Taobao. These regulations protect the consumers against counterfeit goods, poor quality goods, and untimely delivery of Taobao

Internt TV Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Internt TV - Assignment Example NBC The methods of delivering a video may change due to technological changes with the passage of time but story-telling via videos like cartoons, movies and news will never change. So, it can be predicted that a company like NBC that is a great media content provider will be able to stay in business. The overall trend of watching a greater part of vide content over the internet is not linked to a small demographic sector of the consumers but it is a rather consistent phenomenon across the globe and is popular among all ages and genders. (Fisher, 2007) As part of the action plan it has been suggested that NBC international should continue selling news and entertainment content to the TV and cable companies until the Internet TV industry becomes mature. However, the content produced by NBC should be compatible to Internet TV, hence, NBC must adapt to new business models in order to go through the transition phase from traditional TV to internet TV. The entire infrastructure and the me dia content should be transformed from traditional contents to digital contents in order to meet the requirements of the future generations of internet TV. It is possible for NBC to broadcast the content over Internet TV in two ways: Live broadcasts and on-demand videos. Using the live broadcasting method, the company can stream its content on their own official website and other internet TV service providers. On the other hand, on-demand video is the preparation of videos in a playlist form which are either hosted by the official website of the company or other channels. Playlists can be planned in different categories in order to cater the needs of different consumer segments like music, business and sports etc. The consumers should be given an opportunity to choose what to watch and when to watch. It has been recommended that NBC should adopt any one of the following types of new revenue streams: Subscription: Subscription fee can be charged either on per video basis or monthly b asis, for on-demand videos without advertisements. Free broadcasting: Using the free broadcasting from its official website or other Internet TV content providers, NBC should keep incorporating small advertisements like the present TV commercials in order to generate revenue. According to my opinion there is no loss expected to NBC in revenue streams, though the revenue generation may slow down a bit during the phase of transition from conventional TV to digital TV. Rogers It has been recommended for Rogers to develop and incorporate a cloud computing mechanism for the transition from traditional TV to Internet TV. With the help of cloud computing, not only a tremendous speed can be achieved but also the entire family would be able to stay online at the same time and watch whatever they want. Rogers should send video content to the cloud server where data would be stored and the internet TV providers will access them and display on request. The main advantage of this would be that t he company will gain revenue from both the consumers and the Internet TV providers. This would not involve any significant equipment costs to the company. The company would not need to manage and upgrade the servers it would be the Internet TV providing companies who will be doing it. The new revenue generation streams for Roger would be fee charged to the consumers for watching the content whereas the loss of revenue

The Future Or Moores Law Philosophy Essay

The Future Or Moores Law Philosophy Essay Moores law is named after Gordon E. Moore, the co-founder and Chairman Emeritus of Intel Corporation. He first published what later became known as Moores Law in a 1965 Electronics Magazine article called Cramming more components onto integrated circuits. The Law states that computer manufactures will increase the number of transistors to be placed on an integrated circuit, exponentially by a factor of 2, in every 18 to 24 months. The steady growth of the Law, has held true for decades, and while scientists have had to resort to ever more creative methods to keep it going, Intel has proven that such exponential growth will last for at least for a few more years. It seems that, while Gordon Moore was arguably the first to note the exponential growth in computing power, this exponential trend has been a part of technological progress for much longer than was originally thought. According to futurist Kurzweil, Moores law of Integrated Circuits was not the first, but the fifth paradigm to forecast accelerating price-performance ratios. Computing devices have been consistently multiplying in power (per unit of time) from the mechanical calculating devices used in the 1890 U.S. Census, to [Newmans] relay-based [Heath] Robinson machine that cracked the Nazi [Lorenz cipher], to the CBS vacuum tube computer that predicted the election of Eisenhower, to the transistor-based machines used in the first space launches, to the integrated-circuit-based personal computer. This is illustrated in the chart below. What is technology singularity? This idea was first proposed by the mathematician Vernor Vinge who defined Technological Singularity as a time at which the rate of accelerating change increases to a point where it becomes human surpassing.   He said computers within a decade of our current era will be more powerful than the human brain. The machines will rapidly become much smarter than the humans who initially created them. This will cause a convergence of all technologies, until humans became totally embedded and submerged into a virtual world. This singularity is a state in which humans will be components of a cybernetic social network of such complexity that no one person will be able to understand more than a tiny fraction of the whole. As much as Singularitarians rely upon Moores Law to fuel our visions of the future, its not some inescapable truth of the universe. Producing ever smaller transistors is a job for thousands of engineers around the world, spending billions of dollars in research. Each step towards increasing computer processor performance per dollar requires innovation, and those innovations take time and effort to perfect. TriGate is a great example millions of dollars and a decade of preparation for its eventual launch. If you were to chart the evolution of the computer in terms of processing power, you would see that progress has been exponential and Moores Law seems to be self- fulfilling prophecy than a mere law or observation. But will technology singularity sustain of completely wipe off Moores Law? According to Moores Law, the progress of computational power on computers seems to have an exponential growth; whilst the futurist claim that technology singularity will accelerate at rate that no human brain can comprehend, as computers will achieve human-level intelligence and will be an infusion of different technologies embedded together and the growth will not be exponential. Moores Law may continue indefinitely, but it will rely upon the creativity and resilience of many developers at the top of their game. Can they keep it up? Can we keep pushing computers to become faster, better, and more efficient so they double in performance every two years? But on the contrary to support Moores Law, Intel, commercialized the worlds first 3D transistor, known as TriGate. The 22nm transistor performs better and uses less energy than the current cutting edge 32nm transistor. Computers can already perform individual operations orders of magnitude faster than humans can, Farmer said; meanwhile, the human brain remains far superior at parallel processing, or performing multiple operations at once. For most of the past half-century, engineers made computers faster by increasing the number of transistors in their processors, but they only recently began parallelizing computer processors. To work around the fact that individual processors cant be packed with extra transistors, engineers have begun upping computing power by building multi-core processors, or systems of chips that perform calculations in parallel.This controls the heat problem, because you can slow down the clock, Denning explained. Imagine that every time the processors clock ticks, the transistors fire. So instead of trying to speed up the clock to run all these transistors at faster rates, you can keep the clock slow and have parallel activity on all the chips. He says Moores law will probably continue because the number of cores in computer processors will go on doubling every two years. According to a research team at the Georgia Institute of Technologys Microsystems Packaging Research Center, they demonstrated a new technology called system-on-package (SOP). It addresses the other90 percent of the electronic system and paves the way for mega-function systems.In contrast to Moores Law, which addresses 10 percent of system integration at the IC- or device-level only -called the First Law SOP addresses the system integration problem, leading to the Second Law of Electronics. SOP combines nanoscale ICs with newly developed micro- to nanoscale, thin-film versions of discrete and other components. It embeds both of these components in a new type of package so small that it eventually will transform handhelds into multi- or mega-function systems. SOP technology represents a radically different approach to electronic and bio-electronic systems. It shrinks bulky circuit boards with their many components and makes them nearly disappear, leading to package-sized systems hen ce the name system-on-package. In effect, SOP sets up a new law for system integration. It holds that as the components shrink from milli- to micro- to nanoscale, component density will double every few years, leading to an exponential increase in the number of system functions packaged in a device the size of todays cell phones. Whether we attain the levels and surpass singularity still remains a fierce subject of speculation among the scientist and futurists. Below are excerpts of opponents of singularity, who forecast the phasing out of Moores Law. According to Peter Denning, distinguished professor of computer science at the Naval Postgraduate School and an expert on innovation, he says that By 2030 whatever technology were using will be sufficiently small that we can fit all the computing power thats in a human brain into a physical volume the size of a brain, after all this has been said, there will be the evolution of a super intelligent machine that will surpass human understanding. The British mathematician I.J. Good hypothesized that ultra intelligent machines, once created, could design even better machines. There would then unquestionably be an intelligence explosion, and the intelligence of man would be left far behind. Thus the first ultra intelligent machine is the last invention that man need ever make, Others argue that Moores law will soon start to break down, or that it has already. The argument stems from the fact that engineers cant miniaturize transistors much more than they already have, because theyre already pushing atomic limits. When there are only a few atoms in a transistor, you can no longer guarantee that a few atoms behave as theyre supposed to, Denning explained. On the atomic scale, bizarre quantum effects set in. Transistors no longer maintain a single state represented by a 1 or a 0, but instead vacillate unpredictably between the two states, rendering circuits and data storage unreliable. The other limiting factor, Denning says, is that transistors give off heat when they switch between states, and when too many transistors, regardless of their size, are crammed together onto a single silicon chip, the heat they collectively emit melts the chip. Some scientists say computing power is approaching its zenith. Already we see a slowing down of Moores law, the theoretical physicist Michio Kaku said in a Big Think lecture. He says that Computer power simply cannot maintain its rapid exponential rise using standard silicon technology.   He claims that Intel Corporation has admitted this company is now going to three-dimensional chips, chips that compute not just flatly in two dimensions but in the third dimension.   The problem is that a Pentium chip today has a layer almost down to 20 atoms across, 20 atoms across.   When that layer gets down to about 5 atoms across, its all over.   You have two basic problems are heat (the heat generated will be so intense that the chip will melt and disintegrate) and leakage.  (You dont know where the electron is anymore.) Thats the reason why the age of silicon will eventually come to a close. The quantum theory takes over. Kurzweil (1999; 2001) has proposed that technical progress can be characterized as accelerating exponential development. According to Kurzweils law of accelerating returns, technical change is generated in an evolutionary process where the outputs of the process are used as inputs in the next phase of the development. This leads to exponential growth. Kurzweil maintains that the rate of exponential growth itself increases. When a particular evolutionary process becomes more effective than its alternatives, greater resources are deployed for the further progress of the effective process. As a result, the rate of exponential growth itself grows exponentially. Evolution, and technology-evolution continued by other means-therefore is a process that leads to accelerating change. Using his observations as a basis, Kurzweil argues that technical development will rapidly lead to computational devices that are more intelligent than humans. The increasing capabilities of computers will further accelerate the speed of technological progress and, at least from our limited perspective, lead to an apparently infinite speed of change. Kurzweil calls this approaching point of extremely rapid change Singularity. Kurzweils hypothesis of approaching Singularity therefore consists of four major claims. One is the empirical claim that technical developments in computing show exponential growth and that the growth speed has increased over time. Another claim is that this process is generated by a law of accelerated returns which feeds back resources to those areas of technology development that grow rapidly. The third claim is that technology creation can be understood as an evolutionary process. The fourth claim is that the speed of change will soon reach levels where the human intelligence, at least in its current forms, perceive infinite pace of change and that this will lead to major changes in the society and in individual lives.

In Support of Parenting Education Essay -- Child Development

In an perfect world, every child would be wanted and loved, and all parents would have the capacity and the desire to raise children who are healthy, mentally and physically strong, and displaying high moral integrity. Sadly, this is not the case. Some parents are, unfortunately, not much interested in what happens with their children. Other parents are not pleased with what is happening in the home with their children but do not know what to do to create effective change. Still other parents are unaware that there is another way, a better way, of parenting. Parent education could help in all of these scenarios. The literature demonstrates that parenting interventions improve the quality of the relationship parents have with the children as well as improving child social behavior (Scott, O’Connor, Furth, Mathias, Price, and Doolan 2010). Programs have been particularly effective when delivered to motivated, ethnic majority parents, but there has been little study of programs that serve as interventions aimed at preventing a wide range of poor outcomes associated with antisocial behavior, such as involvement in risky lifestyles, low school attainment, and a lack of satisfactory friendships (Scott et al.). There are, of course, problems associated with delivery of parenting programs; the greatest challenge is getting parents to participate when there is no mandate that they do so. Skilled personnel may be another issue; urban areas may have sufficient counselors and educators, but rural areas may not. A third issue is cost, although, as pointed out by Scott et al., â€Å"programs can i n theory be justified since in the long run they should reduce the high cost of antisocial behavior arising from increased use of services, higher levels ... ... Perspective.† Professional School Counseling 14.3 (2011): 242-249. Brannon, Diana. â€Å"Character Education—a Joint Responsibility.† Education Digest 73.8 (2008): 56- 60. Parker, David C., Nelson, Jennifer S., and Burns, Matthew K. â€Å"Comparison of Correlates of Classroom behavior problems in schools with and without a school-wide character education program. Psychology in the Schools 47.8 (2010): 817-827.. Reinberg, S. (2010). U.S. kids using media almost 8 hours a day. HealthDay News January 20, 2010. Retrieved from http://www.businessweek.com/lifestyle/content/healthday /635134.html Scott, Stephen; O’Connor, Thomas G.; Futh, Annabel; Mathias, Carla; Price, Jenny; and Doolan, Moira. â€Å"Impact of a Parenting Program in a High-Risk, Multi-Ethnic Community: the PALS Trial.† Journal of Child Psychology & Psychiatry 51.12 (2010): 1331-1341.

Learning Contracts Essay

Abstract Learning contracts are being used in post-secondary education. Adults approach learning as problem solving and in theory by implementing learning contracts, the student becomes more involved in their own learning process. This paper discusses the use of a learning contract, the advantages and disadvantages for using contracts and the general design of a learning contract. The use of learning contracts provides opportunity for the student to be more involved in their own learning and apply relevance to their own educational experience. Learning Contracts  Ã¢â‚¬Å"Contract learning is, in essence, an alternative way of structuring a learning experience: It replaces a content plan with a process plan. † Malcolm S. Knowles (1991, pg. 39). In the early 1970’s, the concept that adults learn differently than children was introduced by Malcolm Knowles. This theory of andragogy has inspired research and controversy. The complexity of adult learning and motivation provides opportunities to explore new methods of teaching. Implementing learning contracts is an alternative way to structure the learning experience. Definition. Learning contract by definition is an agreement between students and teachers that grant the student certain freedoms and choices about completing tasks yet requires the student to meet certain specifications (â€Å"Definition,† n. d. , p. 1). According to Knowles (1980), contract learning solves, or at least reduces, the problem of dealing with wide differences within any group of adult learners. Knowles (1986) defines a learning contract as containing specifically: 1. the knowledge, skills, attitudes and values to be acquired by the learner (learning objectives); 2.  how the objectives are to be accomplished; 3. the target date for their accomplishment; 4. what evidence will be presented to demonstrate that the objectives have been accomplished; and 5. how this evidence will be judged or validated. In academic settings the contract also specifies how much credit is to be awarded and what grade is to be given (p. 38). Understanding the purpose and advantages of learning contracts and being able to apply them in our future careers as adult instructors will help prepare us for the variety of learning styles our students will have. Purposes of Learning Contracts Learning contracts have multiple purposes. One purpose is that it can enrich and extend the curriculum. They can connect educational needs to individual needs. The responsibility of learning is shared by the student and the educator. Learning contracts can also challenge the abilities of highly able students and provide alternate options that can be altered specifically for the differences in abilities, learning styles and interests of individual students. The contract is a tool for structuring the learning process. Uses of Learning Contracts Findings from research about adult learning have shown that when adults go about learning something naturally, they are highly self-directed (Tough, 1971, 1979). Coincidentally, when adults learn on their own initiative, they have a deeper understanding and more permanent memory of when they learn by being taught. Core adult learning principles view the adult learner as the primary source of data for making sound decisions regarding the learning process (Knowles, Holton, & Swanson, 1998, p. 183). Contract learning is compatible with the notion that adult learners are self-directed learners. Online instruction is an example where contract learning can be highly effective. In an online environment, instructors are not physically meeting with the students to discuss learning goals, objectives and expectations. Learning contracts can help negotiate and define the learning goals and outcomes. Sample learning contracts can be placed on a web page and the student can determine which contract best suits their learning goals. Students can also engage in online discussions about the different options with their peers and gain a broader perspective through shared knowledge. Learning contracts can also be highly effective in the corporate world. Training employees is costly and can require large investments from organizations. Learning contracts allow the employee to take responsibility and increases motivation in the learning process when they are able to relate the training directly to their job responsibilities. Contracts can also clearly define the company’s expectations of the outcomes. When the expectations are defined, both instructor and trainee can track progress and stay focused on the company’s business goals and strategies. Learning contracts are useful in research. Research learning contracts provide form and structure to an unstructured environment such as the research laboratory, while ensuring maximal flexibility (â€Å"Contracts,† n. d. , para. 2). It allows the student to control their own learning. Contracts allow students to define learning objectives, activities, rate of progress and methods of assessment that will evaluate the student’s success or failure. Advantages and Disadvantages of Learning Contracts Advantages. There are many advantages for learning contracts in adult education. Learning contracts enhance the adult learner’s self-directed learning experience. They promote creative and critical thinking for the student and develop their time management, planning and decision making skills. They can target specific individuals and their specific learning activities. Each students experience can be unique to them and incorporate their own prior knowledge and experience. The contracts also allow students to work at their appropriate pace and can increase the student’s motivation which in return can increase their class participation. Contracts can help keep students on course if the contracts are specific and concrete. This can also help minimize miscommunication or misunderstanding of expectations and outcomes. The contract also provides a means for the learner to receive continuous feedback regarding progress toward accomplishing learning objectives. Disadvantages. There are disadvantages to using learning contracts. Contracts can be time consuming to develop. They typically are more detailed and require you to put in more work in the developing stage. Also, students can have confusion especially if their prior learning experience has only been the traditional method of instruction in a classroom. If students are only familiar with â€Å"instructor taught† learning and have not learned to be self-directed learners, the student could have difficulty adapting to this method. The learning contract method in pedagogic learning may require more instructor involvement verses student driven in andragogic learning. The attitude of the educator can have an influence on the learning contract as well. Some educators feel the learning contract gives the student too much control. Designing Learning Contracts There are many different ways to design a learning contract. Learning contracts can address the diverse learning needs of different students and may be designed to suit a variety of purposes. Despite the flexibility, there is a general format starting with identification of the content that will be learned. Specific methods and strategies that will be used to learn the content should be identified. Specifying resources to be used in order to learn the content and determining the type of evidence that will be used to demonstrate the learning should be identified. Last, the evidence that will be validated and by whom needs to be defined. Having clarity will lead to improved performance and allow for revision of learning objectives if needed throughout the learning experience (â€Å"Learning Contracts,† n. d. ). Conclusion and Recommendations Conclusion. Malcolm Knowles’ introduction of andragogy has influenced adult education. A distinguishing characteristic of adult learning programs is the shared control of program planning and facilitation (Knowles, Holton, & Swanson, 1998, p. 133). Engaging adults as partners in their learning experience satisfies their â€Å"need to know† and appeals to their self-concept as independent learners. Learning contracts are a tool that encourages students to participate more actively in their own learning experience. It is an alternative method of structuring a learning experience unique to individuals. It enables educators to work with differences among a group of learners. Learning contracts, more so than any other type of instructional method, create the conditions for individualized instruction. The contract method will not be effective if the adult learner is passive in their own learning experience. Disadvantages include extensive planning and commitment as well as excessive focus on individual success (Duggan, n. d. ). In general, adult learners are going to be self-directed learners as opposed to child learners. Based on the five assumptions learned in WED 486 regarding adult learners: adults need to know why they need to know; adults need to learn experientially; adults approach learning as problem solving; adults learn best when the topic is of immediate value; and adults need to integrate new ideas with what they already know, learning contracts are an effective tool to enhance a self-directed experience. Recommendations. Additional research related to contract learning involves the fairness of learning contracts. In the traditional method of instructor taught learning, all students are given the same syllabus and information on what it takes to earn a particular grade. In the case of learning contracts, they are individualized to the learner. The contract may be specific as to how each learner will obtain earned grades but will the content be equal? Additional research is recommended to determine if contracts are efficient if not all students are covering the same material. References Duggan, T. (n. d. ). The disadvantages of training agreements. Retrieved from http://www.ehow. com/list_6075915_disadvantages-training-agreements. html Guidelines for writing. (n. d. ). In Learning contract guidelines [PDF]. Retrieved from https://dsacms. tamu. edu/sites/sllo. tamu. edu/files/LearningContractGuidelines. pdf Knowles, M. S. (1980). The modern practice of adult education from pedagogy to andragogy. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Cambridge Adult Education. Knowles, M. S. (1986). Using learning contracts (p. 38). San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass Inc. , Publishers. Knowles, M. S. , Holton, III, E. F. , & Swanson, R. A. (1998). Beyond andragogy. In (Ed. ), The adult learner (5th ed. , pp. 153-183). Houston, TX: Gulf Publishing. Learning contracts. (n. d. ). In How to create and use learning contracts [PDF]. Retrieved from http://fcpsteach. org/docs/directions-learning%20contracts. pdf Research learning contracts. (n. d. ). In webGuru. Retrieved October 1, 2011, from http://www. webguru. neu. edu/undergraduate-research/structuring-ur-experience/research-learning-contracts Tough, A. (1971, 1979). The adult’s learning projects. Toronto: Ontario Institute for Studies in Education.

Herzbergs Two Factor Theory Essay

1.0 INTRODUCTION Motivation is an important driver in an organisation and is crucial to the management of intellectual capital. Motivation underlies what employees choose to do (quality and/or quantity), how much effort they will put into accomplishing the task, and how long they will work in order to accomplish it. Employees who are motivated will work more effectively and efficiently and shape an organisation’s behavior. A motivated workforce will have a strong effect on an organisation’s bottom line. Motivation is strongly tied to job satisfaction. Job satisfaction is how individuals feel about the tasks they are supposed to accomplish and may also be influenced by the physical and social nature of the workplace. The more satisfied employees are with their jobs, the more motivated they will be to do their jobs well. There are several important studies relating to motivation. These include Abraham Maslow’s hierarchy of needs, Frederick Herzberg’s study of hygiene and motivational factors, Douglas McGregor’s Theory X and Theory Y, Victor Vroom’s Expectancy Theory, and J. Stacy Adams’ Equity Theory. It is worth noting that the paper will give some highlights of the above mentioned theories so as to give a bigger picture on the subject of motivation, further the paper will give brief definitions of some key concepts such as motivation and job satisfaction. It is also important to state here that the paper will restrict itself to the two factor theory by giving a brief explanation on the theory and then zero in on each of the hygiene factors in detail after which the position of the author on the subject under discussion will be outlined and the conclusion shall follow with the bibliography. 1.1 DEFINITIONS OF KEY CONCEPTS As posited by Vroom (1964), the word â€Å"motivation† is derived from the Latin word movere, which means â€Å"to move†. Motivation is an internal force, dependent on the needs that drive a person to achieve. Schulze and Steyn (2003) affirmed that in order to understand people’s behaviour at work, managers or supervisors must be aware of the concept of needs or motives, which will help â€Å"move† their employees to act. Locke (1976) defines job satisfaction as the positive emotional state stemming from valuation of a person’s experience associated with the job. Job satisfaction is associated with salary, occupational stress, empowerment, company and administrative policy, achievement, personal growth, relationship with others, and the overall working condition. It has been argued that an increase in job satisfaction increases worker productivity (Wright & Cropanzano, 1997; Shikdar & Das, 2003). Therefore, job satisfaction has a major effect on people’s lives. Locke (1976) indicated that job satisfaction most commonly affects a person’s physical health, mental health and social life whereby people who are satisfied with their jobs will tend to be happy with their lives. Breed and Breda (1997) indicated that job satisfaction may affect absenteeism, complaints, and labour unrest. In view of this, satisfied workers will be much more productive and be retained within the organisation for a longer period, in contrast to displeased workers who will be less useful and who will have a greater tendency to quit their jobs (Crossman, 2003). More importantly, satisfied workers not only perform better but also provide better service to customers, which could result in improving customer satisfaction. It is assumed that motivation and satisfaction are very similar and that, in many cases, they are considered to be synonymous terms. According to Hersey and Blanchard (1988), motivation and satisfaction are quite different from each other in terms of reward and performance. The authors point out that motivation is influenced by forward-looking perceptions about the relationship between performance and rewards, whereas satisfaction involves how people feel about the rewards they have received. In other words, motivation is a consequence of expectations of the future while satisfaction is a consequence of past events (Carr, 2005). Researchers have given considerable attention to employee job satisfaction because it is closely related to the quality of the employee’s life. Jenner (1994) insisted that increasing the employee’s job satisfaction or morale is an important technique for eliminating absenteeism, reducing turnover, and eventually raising productivity. Barber (1986) found that job dissatisfaction was associated with greater absenteeism and higher turnover rates. With high job satisfaction, the employee tended to show stronger organizational commitment and higher intention to remain with the company. 1.2 UNDERSTANDING MOTIVATION USING THEORIES Theories of motivation can help us understand why people behave as they do. No theory has a Universal approach to explain human behaviour, because people are too far complex (Donnelly, et al.1996). Two important groups of theories are content theories and process theories. Content theories are concerned with identifying what factors in an individual or the work environment energise and sustain behaviour. Process theories try to describe how behaviour is energised, directed, and sustained. Process theories first attempt to define variables in choice, i.e., Should I work hard? (Choice); how hard do I Work? (Persistence). Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs posits that behavior at a particular moment is determined by the strongest need. He placed them in a framework referred to as the hierarchy of needs because of the different levels of importance. Those needs that come first must be satisfied before a higher-level need comes into play. Equity Theory posits that perceived inequity is a Motivational force. Workers evaluate equity using a ratio of inputs to outputs. Inputs include qualification, experience, effort, and ability. Outcomes include benefits. Inequities occur when workers feel that outcomes are not compatible with inputs. Expectancy Theory asserts that employees are motivated to make choices among behaviors. If employees believe that effort will be rewarded, there will be motivated effort, that is, they will decide to work harder to receive a reward. Expectancy is the belief that certain behaviours will or will not be successful. Preferences are the values a person attaches to different outc omes. 2.0 THE TWO FACTOR THEORY Herzberg’s two-factor theory of motivation (1959) explains and studies the factors that play a key role in making the employees of an organisation satisfied or dissatisfied with their work and job profiles. The two factors are- hygiene factors and motivators. If hygiene factors are absent, they can lead to creation of dissatisfaction among workers, but when they are adequate, they alone cannot lead to satisfying workers in the work environment. On the other hand, motivators are the factors that are related to the nature of the job and play a significant role in providing satisfaction among workers and leading to higher level of motivation (Bassett-Jones and Lloyd 2005). Employees all over the world not only want job security but also want quality employment. They desire to be given ample opportunities for advancement, good working conditions, and fair treatment by managers, autonomy on their work, challenging jobs and responsibility (Miner 2003). These factors are included in the motivator factors given by Herzberg and still hold true today in contemporary business environment. Today’s organisations focus on teamwork and cohesion among the group so as to create an inductive environment for work where employees are motivated to work and contribute to attaining the goals of the organisation. Cock and Davis (1990) demonstrate that work quality is one of the major factors that determine satisfaction among employees in terms of motivation. For instance, if an employee has adequate money, but he has no meaningful work, then the employee starts feeling lack of self value, which is again in coherence with the Herzberg’s theory that when money stops being the driving force of motivation for employees, psychological rewards take its place and become more crucial as well as significant in terms of acting as a driving force of motivation. So, money stops acting as the motivator for employees beyond a certain threshold (Critical Analysis of Adam J. Stacy’s and Frederick Herzberg’s Theories on Job Satisfaction of Employees 2012). In today’s business scenario, sources of satisfaction at work and the ways in which jobs can be designed so as to make the work itself more challenging and enriching can motivate employees and help organisations attain their aims and goals as mentioned in Herzberg motivation theory (Locke and Latham 2004). Herzberg stated that the only way to motivate employees in the organisation is to give them challenging work so that they can feel a sense of responsibility as well as belonging towards the organisation. Today, employees are involved in decision making due to which they feel more responsibility as well as find themselves at a higher level of motivation. Intrinsic drivers dominate over external stimuli in terms of motivation and lead to enhanced contributions towards organisational success. According to Herzberg’s book on Work and the Nature of Man 1973, he says man has two sets of needs: his need as an animal to avoid pain, and his need as a human to grow psychologically. The biblical personages of Adam and Abraham are used to illustrate and develop the duality of man’s nature. Briefly, as Adam, man is pictured as an animal whose overriding goal is to avoid the pain inevitable in relating to his environment. On the other hand, looking at man in his totality, in addition to his avoidance nature there exists a human being who is impelled to determine, to discover, to achieve, to actualise, to progress and to add to his existence. These needs summarise the Abraham concept of man Work and the Nature of Man 1973. A basic understanding of the concept is that man exists as a duality and has two sets of needs present at the same time. Another interesting and important aspect of man’s dual nature follows in that the two sets of needs of man are essentially independent of one another. That is, each of the two concepts of man consists of a system of needs that operate in opposing directions. Furthermore, seething the needs of one facet of man (Adam) has little or no effect upon the needs of the other facet in man (Abraham). It should be noted that since both sets of needs exist in man at the same time both must be served and one will not substitute for the other. To illustrate, one cannot find happiness simply by avoiding physical pain, or avoid pain by finding happiness. From this illustration it becomes apparent that happiness and pain are not polar opposites of the same feeling originating from the same source; that is, happiness and pain are not on the same continuum. This is the principal upon which the Herzberg two-factor theory is based. Job satisfaction and job dissatisfaction represent two separate and distinct continua just as observed earlier with respect to happiness and pain. Herzberg offers another analogy-as follows-to help explain this way of thinking about job attitudes; let us characterise job satisfaction as vision and job dissatisfaction as hearing. It is readily seen that we are talking about two separate dimensions, since the stimulus for vision is light, and increasing and decreasing light will have no effect on man’s hearing. The stimulus for audition is sound, and, in a similar fashion, increasing or decreasing loudness will have no effect on vision. Herzberg analysed and classified the job content factors or satisfying experiences as follows –Achievement -Recognition -Work itself -Responsibility-Advancement –Growth. According to Herzberg, these factors stand out as strong determiners of job satisfaction. Job responsibility and advancement being the most important relative to a lasting attitude charge. Achievement, more so than recognition, was frequently associated with such long-range factors as responsibility and the nature of the work itself. Recognition which produces good feelings about the job does not essentially have to come from superiors; it may come from subordinates, peers, or customers. It is interesting to note that recognition based on achievement provides a more intense satisfaction than does recognition used solely as a human relations tool divorced from any accomplishment, The latter does not serve as a satisfier, Rush, H. M. F. (1969- 92-93; 9:370) Compared with the satisfiers or motivators are the factors which cause low job attitude situations or job dissatisfaction. Such factors were found from the analysis of the study results to be associated primarily with an individual’s relationship to the context or environment in which he does his work. These factors are extrinsic to the work itself and are referred to as dissatisfiers or hygiene (or maintenance) factors. Herzberg categorized the context or environmental factors causing dissatisfaction to include: Dissatisfies: – Company policy and administration – Supervision – Working conditions – Interpersonal relations (with peers, subordinates and superiors) – Status – Job security – Salary – Personal Life 3.0 Hygiene Factors Why, for instance, do hygiene factors serve as dissatisfiers? Why, on the other hand, do motivators affect motivation in the positive direction? Consider the answers to these questions in terms of the distinction between the two sets of human needs (Adam vs Abraham). One stems from man’s animal nature and his need to avoid pain. This set consists of the needs for which the hygiene factors are relevant. The word â€Å"hygiene† is a medical term meaning preventative and environmental. This is an –appropriate term in view of the fact that the hygiene factors represent the environment to which man as an animal is constantly trying to adjust. The dissatisfies or hygiene factors previously listed are the major environment aspects of work. Because these factors serve only to reduce pain, they cannot contribute to positive satisfaction but only to the avoidance of dissatisfaction. Herzberg found, for example, that good working conditions (Physical, environment, congenial co-workers, good supervision) were rarely named as factors contributing to job satisfaction; however, poor working conditions were frequently cited as sources of dissatisfaction. Herzberg argued that improvement in the hygiene factors would only minimise dissatisfaction but not increase satisfaction and motivation. In order to motivate employees, the managers must ensure to provide the hygiene factors and then follow the motivating factors. When hygiene factors are adequate, people will not be dissatisfied; but at the same time they may not be fully satisfied. They will be in a neutral state. If we want to motivate people on their jobs, it is suggested to give much importance on those job content factors such as opportunities for personal growth, recognition, responsibility, and achievement. These are the characteristics that people find intrinsically rewarding. Herzberg model sensitises that merely treating the employees well through ‘good’ company policies is not sufficient to motivate them. Managers should utilise the skills, abilities, and talents of the people at work through effective job designing. In other words, the work given to employees should be challenging and exciting and offer them a sense of achievement, recognition, and growth. Unless these characteristics are present in the job, employees will not be motivated. A company policy that treats workers well may not be motivation in itself if there is no clear career progression plan or it hinders progression whether through strict staff development policy or lack of provision of scholarships. For example, some companies have policies that a worker needs to serve a minimum of 8 years for them to be granted paid study leave without sponsorship; in view of the life expectancy which is significantly reduced, it may not be possible for an employee to wait for that long. Additionally, an employee may have added responsibilities such as taking his children to school thereby making it extremely difficult for them to pay for their own studies. It is important to note that even in situations where this policy is elaborate, it may not bring motivation in itself unless it be accompanied by a motivator such as personal growth or recognition. There are a number of managerial styles that are adopted by different supervisors; some are strict and do not consult while others are open and make workers autonomous. The quality of supervision alone, however, will not motivate a worker. Even when the supervision is good, it may not motivate a worker unless this good supervision is coupled with achievement, where the worker is given a normal task load and these tasks are smart in nature. Only then can this be a source of motivation. Despite being good, the supervisor must be seen to apply the concept of equity in dealing with subordinates, if this aspect is absent, then the workers may be dissatisfied Factors that involve the physical environment of the job: amount of work, facilities for performing work, light, tools, temperature, space, ventilation, and general appearance of the work place. In a company were working conditions are poor, workers will not be motivated to work. For example, a receptionist who works in a small and stuffy room will not be motivated to go for work the following day. Even if such a person worked in an air conditioned room with good chairs, but the company does not recognise her contribution to the organisation, she may decide to leave the organisation because she will not be motivated. So it is only when these factors are combined that one will be motivated. For example, when such a worker’s contribution is recognised even by management writing her a letter of appreciation, then there will be motivation and satisfaction. When it comes to job security, which is employee’s job tenure and/or the company’s stability or instability, objective signs of the presence or absence of security, it is worth noting that when a job is secured it will produce a good feeling or the psychological well being of the employee will be good. However, on its own, it cannot provide motivation unless a balance is struck between the motivators and hygiene factors as outlined by Herzberg In Herzberg’s two-factor model pay is a maintenance factor that should not contribute significantly to motivation. The money that employees receive is actually a package made up of salary, and other fringe benefits such as transport, housing, furniture, medical allowance. Others include meal subsidy and utility allowances. This pay is given across the board or is universal and, therefore, a worker will not feel anything special about this pay unless it is given to workers who have performed exceptionally well and not to everybody else. In this case, it becomes a merit pay. For example, a government worker who has been in service for five years at a given position will be given the same salary as someone who has just graduated from the university because they have the same position and qualification and salary scale. In such a situation, salary will not be a motivation for the one who has served longer. In view of this, the employee who has worked for five years will only be motivated if his salary is different on account of performance and length in service. Here, we see an aspect of recognition coming into play. In expectancy theory, pay can satisfy a variety of needs and influence choice and behavior, while in equity theory, pay is a major outcome that one compares with other employees. The relationships between the worker and his or her superiors, subordinates, and peers-by which we mean the related interactions and social interactions within the work environment-play a major role in determining how employees feel about their work. Ordinarily a good and warm relationship with one’s supervisor would entail no dissatisfaction on the part of the worker. However, if the company does not recognise one’s effort or contribution to the organisation, then they will not be motivated. In order to motivate, good supervision has to be coupled with a good company policy and recognition. 4.0 Conclusion The concept of Herzberg’s Two-factor theory is one that focuses on understanding the acceptable hygiene factors that prevent the employee from being dissatisfied. It must be noted, though, that hygiene factors do not do much to motivate the employee and the management of companies has to seek other ways of achieving this. The main idea behind such factors is that they may spell the difference in the perceptions that employees hold with regards to their work and their relationship with their organisation of choice. It must be noted that both factors (hygiene factors and motivation factors) must exist in order for the employee to be motivated in his work, in the best way that he/she possibly can. If there are missing factors (whether they may be hygiene factors or motivation factors), it is possible for the employee to be dissatisfied and not perform in the best way that they can. If all the hygiene factors are present and even when there is more than enough of a hygiene factor present, then it is possible that the employee would still not be motivated. Thus, in order for managers to successfully motivate their employees, there is a need for them to determine the appropriate and the sufficient motivation factors to use. Although, it is not always necessary that motivators keep motivating employees all the time and hygiene factors cause dissatisfaction. Some of these factors can interchange their roles as well. Therefore, it is required on the part of managers to adopt more pragmatic approach and apply a blend of both motivator factors and hygiene factors to attain the individual as well as organizational goals with efficiency and effectiveness